ottoman tessuto wikipedia

[202] The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.). During Ottoman rule in Libya (1551–1912), Turkish settlers began to migrate to the region from across the empire. In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, commanded by the Ottomans, burned Moscow. )[85], During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids. The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire. Printing was forbidden until the 18th century, for fear of defiling the secret documents of Islam. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of Prussia. An ottoman couldn't be more clever and multitasking than this. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. [70] The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. In 1830, the French invaded Ottoman Algeria, which was lost to the empire; between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians were killed,[106][107] while French forces suffered only 3,336 killed in action. Etymology. [160] As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (r. 1918–1922) was a direct patrilineal (male-line) descendant of the first Ottoman sultan Osman I (d. 1323/4), which was unparallelled in both Europe (e.g., the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. ", Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the eighteenth century. In the 19th century, Ishak Efendi is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were restored 30 years later with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908. '", Yaycıoğlu, Ali. [97], Educational and technological reforms came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University. [233] During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. For empires with Turkic origins, see, The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent, under Sultan, These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 29 March 2008, Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683), Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence, Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state, In Ottoman Turkish, the city was known by various names, among which were. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. [45], In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion. The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1402, the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the Turco-Mongol leader Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. relativo all ipertrofia del tessuto linfatico nelle cavità nasali o nella faringe 2. s.f. [115][114] In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. 1-dic-2020 - Esplora la bacheca "suzani" di Pitigliano, seguita da 160 persone su Pinterest. Ottoman is a crosswise rib pattern with a pronounced ribbed or corded effect, may be knitted or woven.Ottoman is a stiff, heavyweight, crosswise rib structure. TS med. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. de comp. Bu siteyi kullanarak, Kullanım Şartlarını ve Gizlilik Politikasını kabul etmiş olursunuz. The word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). 86–100 from, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFReynolds2011 (, harv error: no target: CITEREFErickson2013 (, Norman Stone, "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power. ", Oleg Benesch, "Comparing Warrior Traditions: How the Janissaries and Samurai Maintained Their Status and Privileges During Centuries of Peace. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though exclusively non-fictional in nature. In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; "Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery"), Realism (Henüz on Yedi Yaşında, 1881; "Just Seventeen Years Old"), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; "Observations"). "Ottoman history: whose history is it?. Defeated on every front, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. Visualizza altre idee su tappeti, tessuti, ricamo folk. [132] The Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) ended with a decisive victory for Russia. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. [47][48] Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt by defeating and annexing the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers. Rise of Empires: Ottoman, 24 Ocak 2020 tarihinde altı bölümlük tek sezonun yayınlandığı, yönetmen koltuğuna Emre Şahin'in oturduğu, senaryosu Kelly McPherson tarafından kaleme alınan, tarih ve kurgu türündeki Netflix'in Türk orijinal belgesel dizisi. [52] In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the Siege of Güns. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Capa senhoril de luto. [216] Some argue that the millet system is an example of pre-modern religious pluralism. In addition they acquired wealth d… However, in 1073 and following the victory o… [152] Many historians led in 1937 by the Turkish historian M. Fuat Koprulu championed the Ghazi thesis that saw the Ottoman state as a continuation of the way of life of the nomadic Turkic tribes who had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale. [32] In the early modern period, an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish-speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class would often refer to himself neither as an Osmanlı nor as a Türk, but rather as a RÅ«mÄ« (رومى‎), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former Byzantine Empire in the Balkans and Anatolia. [232] Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908. Most institutions that did serve all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.[237]. It was initially drafted on the 11th and first publicly read out in front of a large crowd on the 14th of November. [187], Economic historian Paul Bairoch argues that free trade contributed to deindustrialization in the Ottoman Empire. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. [170], The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s. Following the attack, Russia and its allies, France and Britain declared war on the Ottomans. As clubs became more popular, so did the ottoman, which began to have hinged seats underneath to hold storage. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon. [164], Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. [9] The caliphate would remain held by Ottoman sultans for the rest of the office's duration, which ended with its abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France. de agg., s.f. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes. [89] During the Köprülü Era (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. [189] For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century. Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. In weaving it is a warp faced fabric showing bold weft way rib. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. The primary purpose of the Imperial Harem was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) descendance of the Ottoman sultans. ", Çelik, Nihat. [122] Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed[123] and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and fled to the Ottoman Empire,[124] resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and Ä°zmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914. ", "Empire" as a description of foreign policy, This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 08:23. [78] The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa. Free ... Bel tessuto di rivestimento. In the Ottoman Empire, illuminated and illustrated manuscripts were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. The word 'textile' comes from the Latin adjective textilis, meaning 'woven', which itself stems from textus, the past participle of the verb texere, 'to weave'.. In: Ágoston, Gábor and Bruce Alan Masters. Indeed, as the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the nineteenth century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks". The Ottomans became involved in multi-continental religious wars when Spain and Portugal were united under the Iberian Union, the Ottomans as holders of the Caliph title, meaning leader of all Muslims worldwide, and Iberians, as leaders of the Christian crusaders, were locked in a worldwide conflict, with zones of operations in the Mediterranean Sea[61] and Indian Ocean[62] where Iberians circumnavigated Africa to reach India, and on their way, wage wars upon the Ottomans and their local Muslim allies. The status of Anatolia was problematic given the occupied forces. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; Romania achieved full independence; and Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. Metin Creative Commons Atıf-BenzerPaylaşım Lisansı altındadır; ek koşullar uygulanabilir. The Ottoman aviation squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south. It may have square or semicircular ends, and as a rule it is what upholsterers call "overstuffed", meaning no wood is visible. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom to worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia. It won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–23) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the surname "Atatürk"). Hatun (Ottoman Turkish: خاتون ‎) was used as an honorific for women in the Ottoman period, roughly equivalent to the English term Lady.The term was being used for the Ottoman sultan's consorts. [143] Among them "Committee of Union and Progress", and "Freedom and Accord Party" were major parties. During the Tanzimat period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law[112] and guilds with modern factories. During the years of the Stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style, however. [236] Education, therefore, was largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students and vice versa. The war began with the Ottoman surprise attack on the Russian Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854. Cambridge University Press, 2008. [157] Because the matters of jurisprudence and shariah were state matters, the state sponsored Sufi religious dominance came into play. The Ottoman lira replaced the kuruş as the principal unit of currency in the Ottoman Empire, with the kuruş continuing to circulate as a subdivision of the lira, with 100 kuruş = 1 lira. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.[174]. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. [170] In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts. The Arab Revolt began in 1916 with British support. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire. Foundation of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1402): Osman I (1299–1324) , Orhan (1324–1361) , Murad I (1361–1389) , Bayezid I (1389–1402) The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations. Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. [102] In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Ottoman Empire. Slavery was a part of Ottoman society,[231] with most slaves employed as domestic servants. Ottoman architecture was influenced by Persian, Byzantine Greek and Islamic architectures. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature. [114] In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the Sursock family indicative of this shift in influence. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. [Figurado] O que encobre ou oculta; véu.… The First Constitutional Era lasted for only two years until 1878. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. [46][note 8], Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Iran, in the Battle of Chaldiran. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Crowley, Roger Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world, Random House, 2008. Also, sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of tughra, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings. [1] It may be used as a stool, footstool[2][3] or as an alternative to a sofa. The Venetian defenders would hold out for 11 months against a force that would come to number 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. ", Karen Barkey, and George Gavrilis, "The Ottoman millet system: Non-territorial autonomy and its contemporary legacy.". [257] Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.[257]. sfn error: no target: CITEREFQuataert2000 (, Kemal H. Karpat, "The transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908. Due to historically close ties with France, French literature came to constitute the major Western influence on Ottoman literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. [113] The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî. (Losses from the war totaled 30,985 Venetian soldiers and 118,754 Turkish soldiers. Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan. Since the founding of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans followed the Maturidi creed (school of Islamic theology) and the Hanafi madhab (school of Islamic jurisprudence).[206][207][208]. Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. This process of legal modernization began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839. The sultan was the sole ruler of the empire. [251] However, the observatory's primary purpose was almost certainly astrological rather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose. [220] The secularization program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The rebellion eventually took Damascus and set up a short-lived monarchy led by Faisal, a son of Hussein. This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west.[166]. The bey received an Ottoman army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture Oran; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts abolished. At the same time the Qanun (or Kanun), a secular legal system, co-existed with religious law or Sharia. The text of the introduction(s) is based on the content of the Wikipedia encyclopedia. The earliest known instance of the use of the name is ottomane in French in 1729,[12] while the first known recorded use in English occurs in one of Thomas Jefferson's memorandum books from 1789: "P[ai]d. for an Ottomane of velours d'Utrecht. Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul, and 31 between 1751 and 1801. 86–100 from, Ronald C. Jennings, "Some thoughts on the gazi-thesis.". [249] Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, döner kebab/gyro/shawarma, cacık/tzatziki, ayran, pita bread, feta cheese, baklava, lahmacun, moussaka, yuvarlak, köfte/keftés/kofta, börek/boureki, rakı/rakia/tsipouro/tsikoudia, meze, dolma, sarma, rice pilaf, Turkish coffee, sujuk, kashk, keşkek, manti, lavash, kanafeh, and more. Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance, short story, or novel. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularization, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam. [194], The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Ottomans are often sold as coordinating furniture with armchairs or gliders. In 1555, the Caucasus became officially partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a status quo that would remain until the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74). The ottoman traces its roots to furnishing practices in the Ottoman Empire, where it was the central piece of residential seating, generally designed as a low wooden platform intended to be piled with cushions. Turki Ottoman (Turks Turks, Turki: Ottoman Turkleri) waxay ahaayeen dadweynaha Turkiga ku hadla ee Boqortooyada Ottoman, oo aasaasay saldhigyo milatari oo dawladeed iyo xukun dawladeed. The word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Despite the similarities, Stone argued that a crucial difference was that the land grants under the timar system were not hereditary at first. English: Ottoman Empire. [151] The American historian Speros Vryonis wrote that the Ottoman state was centered on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion". Anche il rivestimento cuscini può essere utile, permettendo di rinnovare un divano in modo semplice senza dover rivestire l’intero divano. Honorific and titles Hatun. [211] In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered a fifth column for the rival Safavid empire. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.[131]. [195][196] Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city. [116], The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). The French conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. Bu sayfa son olarak 9 Aralık 2020 tarihinde ve 21.48 saatinde değiştirilmiştir. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century. Ottoman (av fransk ottomane, [canapé en] ottoman, gjennom tysk Ottomane) er ein type møbel til å sitja eller ligga på som var utbreidd i Europa på 1700- og 1800-talet. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was by an Armenian named Vartan Pasha. Turkish Cuisine - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia In Ottoman cuisine, fruit frequently accompanied meat as a side dish. English The Sharifian Army led by Hussein and the Hashemites, with military backing from the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force, successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the Hejaz and Transjordan. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326, making it the new capital of the Ottoman state and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. Unlike systems of chattel slavery, slaves under Islamic law were not regarded as movable property, but maintained basic, though limited, rights. The Ottoman Empire (/ˈɒtəmən/; Ottoman Turkish: دولت عليه عثمانيه‎ Devlet-i Ê¿AlÄ«ye-i Ê¿OsmānÄ«ye, literally "The Sublime Ottoman State"; Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Ä°mparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti; French: Empire ottoman)[note 5][14] was a state[note 6] that controlled much of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries. Many of the various Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. This diversity was, in part, due to the Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures.[243]. [158], Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli advocated for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, and in return, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878. The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters. The Ottoman Empire continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids,[71] and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The main entrance of Dolmabahçe Palace that is built in 1862, Yalı is a house or mansion constructed at immediate waterside on the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul, Odunpazarı in Eskişehir has the best examples of the civil Ottoman architecture, Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans, and Romania, where mosques, bridges, fountains, and schools were built. Veste superior de certas religiosas. They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan Selim III. Leather Ottoman With Metal Frame Velaccio Amerigo Milano Pix Cubo Rectangular Pouf By Arper Design Ichiro Iwasaki Mustard Debra Pouf 80 X 80 Cm Kave Home ... Pouf Barocco Rotondo In Legno E Tessuto A Fiori Color Oro Cm Classic Pouf Fabric Rectangular Upholstered Bague Heller Mb 5 Pouf Table 2modern Puf De Diseno Elona Crema De Oro In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,[200] while Arabic was used for Islamic prayers. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse),[171][172] and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. [130] The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875. In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar. Concepts of Ottoman architecture concentrate mainly on the mosque. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the Roman Empire, by the likes of the contemporary Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and the French political philosopher Jean Bodin. [150] Kitzikis called the Ottoman state "a Greek-Turkish condominium". They argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came from Persia. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. [33] As applied to Ottoman Turkish-speakers, this term began to fall out of use at the end of the seventeenth century, and instead the word increasingly became associated with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today. In May 1919, Greece also took control of the area around Smyrna (now Ä°zmir). [96] The Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739), which was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, resulted in the recovery of Serbia and Oltenia, but the Empire lost the port of Azov, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was clearly shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. In May 1913, the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established. [247][248] It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by tambourine (def). Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music. ", Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768-1808.

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